Judicial Decisions in the Context of Artificial Intelligence Technologies – A Jurisprudential and Legal Study
Abstract
The advancement of artificial intelligence technologies has brought about a fundamental transformation in the judiciary. AI is now employed to analyze submitted cases, predict verdicts, and support judges with data‑driven recommendations. This evolution has accelerated litigation procedures, enhanced the precision of rulings, and reduced the scope of human bias.
Despite these benefits, AI’s use raises legal and ethical challenges concerning the transparency of deployed algorithms and the potential for bias arising from their programming or input data. Additional concerns include risks to the privacy of litigation parties.
Consequently, it is imperative to establish religious and legal safeguards that ensure AI remains an auxiliary tool for judges, preserving their advisory role without supplanting judicial authority. Full responsibility must remain with the judge, who is obliged to verify the accuracy of the data provided by the intelligent system and to rely on it with due caution.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
1. Majmaʿ Maqāyīs al-Lughah by Ibn Fāris, ed. ʿAbd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 3rd ed., 1979), vol. 2, p. 91.
2. Memoir on the Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Mudhakkirah fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh) by al-Shanqīṭī (Medina: Maktabat al-ʿUlūm wa-al-Ḥikam, 5th ed., 2001), p. 10.
3. Al-Ibhāj fī Sharḥ al-Minhāj – Minhāj al-Wuṣūl ilā ʿIlm al-Uṣūl lil-Qāḍī al-Baydāwī by al-Subkī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 1995), vol. 1, p. 43.
4. Tāj al-Lughah wa-Ṣiḥāḥ al-ʿArabīyah by al-Jawharī, source cited above, vol. 6, p. 2463; Lisān al-ʿArab by Ibn Manẓūr, source cited above, vol. 15, p. 186; Majmaʿ Maqāyīs al-Lughah by Ibn Fāris, source cited above, vol. 5, p. 99.
5. Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ by al-Kāsānī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 2nd ed., 1986), vol. 2, p. 7; Tuḥfat al-Muḥtāj fī Sharḥ al-Minhāj by al-Haytamī (Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijāriyyah al-Kubrā, Masṭafá Muḥammad, 1983), vol. 10, p. 101.
6. Ḥāshiyat al-ʿAdawī ʿalā Sharḥ Kifāyat al-Ṭālib al-Rabbānī by al-ʿAdawī, ed. Yūsuf al-Shaykh Muḥammad al-Biqāʿī (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1994), vol. 2, p. 338.
7. Al-Mubdiʿ fī Sharḥ al-Muqniʿ by Ibn Mufliḥ (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 1st ed., 1997), vol. 8, p. 139.
8. Istiqlāl al-Qaḍāʾ by Farūq Kilānī (Cairo: Dār al-Nahḍah al-ʿArabīyah, 1st ed., 1977), p. 15.
9. Naẓarīyat al-Ḥukm al-Qaḍāʾī by ʿAbd al-Nāṣir Abū al-Baṣl, p. 52.
10. Naẓarīyat al-Aḥkām al-Qaḍāʾīyah fī Qānūn al-Murāfaʿāt by Aḥmad Abū al-Wafāʾ (Alexandria: Manshaʾ al-Maʿārif, 6th ed., 1988), p. 35.
11. Law No. 08-09 of 18 Ṣafar 1429 AH (25 February 2008), Concerning the Civil and Administrative Procedure Code. Official Gazette, no. 21 (23 April 2008), p. 04.
12. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in Kitāb al-Aḥkām, bāb “Hal yaqḍī al-qāḍī aw yufṭī huwa ghaḍbān”, ḥadīth no. [7158]. See Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, ed. Muḥammad Zuhayr ibn Nāṣir al-Nāṣir (Damascus: Dār Ṭawq al-Najāt [repr. al-Sulṭāniyyah with numbering by Muḥammad Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Bāqī], 1st ed. 1422 AH), vol. 9, p. 65.
13. Reported by Aḥmad in his Musnad, ḥadīth Abī Ḥumayd al-Sāʿidī, no. [23601], vol. 14, p. 39.
14. See Muḥammad Raʾfat ʿUthmān, The Judicial System in Islamic Jurisprudence (Beirut: Dār al-Bayān, 2nd ed., 1994), pp. 529–547; al-Baydāwī, Al-Ghāyah al-Quṣā fī Dirāyat al-Fatwā, ed. and comm. ʿAlī Muḥī al-Dīn al-Qarah Daghi (Beirut: Dār al-Bashāʾir al-Islāmīyah, 1st ed., 2008), p. 463.
15. Abdullah Jamil Abu Wahdān and Amīrah ʿAdnān Darwī, “Judicial Independence in Rulings: An Analytical Jurisprudential Study of Decree-Law No. 2021/8 Concerning the Islamic Judiciary,” Journal of Sharia and Islamic Studies, vol. 13, no. 02, Dhu’l-Ḥijjah 1443 AH (July 2022 AD), p. 259.
16. Abd al-Karīm Zaydān, The Judicial System in Islamic Law, (Al-Bashāʾir Library, Amman), 2nd ed., 1989 AD, pp. 25–32 (selected). Mahmūd al-Sharabīnī, Judiciary in Islām, (Egyptian General Book Organization), 2nd ed., 1999 AD, pp. 18–61 (selected).
17. Khālidah al-Zīn ʿAbd al-Laṭīf and Muṣṭafā ʿUthmān ʿAbdallāh, “The Concept of the Principle of Judge Impartiality in Jurisprudence, Law and Evidentiary Systems,” Journal of the Faculty of Islamic and Arabic Studies for Women, Alexandria, no. 40, issue 03, September 2024 AD, pp. 2298–2299.
18. al-Sanhūrī, Al-Wasīṭ fī Sharḥ al-Qānūn al-Madānī al-Jadīd: Theory of Obligation in General, (n.p.), vol. 2, p. 28 (selected).
19. Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmūʿ al-Fatāwá, ed. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim, (King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur’ān, Madīnah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), 1st ed., 1995 AD, vol. 35, p. 395. – Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, Al-Ṭuruq al-Ḥukmīyah fī al-Siyāsah al-Sharʿīyah, ed. Nāyif ibn Aḥmad al-Ḥamad, supervised by Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh Abū Zayd, (ʿĀlam al-Fawāʾid Press), 1st ed., 1432 AH, vol. 1, pp. 63–64.
20. Muḥammad Naṣr Muḥammad, Proofs of Evidence in Comparative Systems, (Law and Economics Library, Riyadh), 1st ed., 2012 AD, p. 17.
21. The Ḥanafīs, Mālikīs, Shāfiʿīs and Ẓāhirīs adopted the restricted evidentiary system, though they differed as to the scope of admissible means of proof.” See: Ibn Najīm, Al-Ashbāh wa-al-Naẓāʾir ʿalá Madhhab Abī Ḥanīfah al-Nuʿmān, annotated and explicated by Shaykh Zakariyyāʾ ʿAmīrāt, (Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), 1st ed., 1999 AD, p. 210; Ibn Juzayy, Al-Qawānīn al-Fiqhīyah, (Dār al-Fikr, Beirut), 1st ed., 2009 AD, p. 253; al-Qarāfī, Al-Furūq, with marginalia Idrār al-Shurūq ʿalá Anwār al-Furūq by Imam Ibn al-Shāṭib, ed. ʿUmar Ḥasan al-Qiyām, (al-Risālah Foundation, Beirut), 1st ed., 2011 AD, vol. 4, p. 156; al-Sharabīnī, Mughnī al-Muḥtāj ilá Maʿrifat Maʿānī Alfāẓ al-Minhāj, (Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), 1st ed., 1994 AD, vol. 6, p. 399; Ibn Ḥazm, Al-Muḥallá bi-al-Athār, (Dār al-Fikr, Beirut), (n.p.), vol. 11, p. 106.
22. al-Sanhūrī, op. cit., pp. 29/2–30 (selected). Ṣāliḥ ibn Shanāt, “The Role of the Civil Judge in Proof,” doctoral thesis in Law, supervised by al-ʿArabī Shaḥṭ ʿAbd al-Qādir, (Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Oran 2), academic year 2017–2018 AD, pp. 18–19.
23. Abdullah Jamil Abu Wahdān and Amīrah ʿAdnān Darwī, op. cit., p. 261.
24. Official Gazette, dated 15 Jumādá al-Ūlá 1442 AH (30 December 2020 AD), no. 82, p. 36.
25. Ibn Manẓūr, op. cit., vol. 14, p. 287; Ibn Fāris, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 357–358; al-Munāwī, al-Tawqīf ʿalá Muhimmāt al-Taʿārīf, ed. ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Ṣāliḥ Ḥamdān, (ʿĀlam al-Kutub, Cairo), 1st ed., 1990 AD, p. 171.
26. Badīʿ al-Qashāʿilah, Al-Mukhtaṣar fī Mafhūm al-Dhakāʾ, (Psychology Center for Electronic Publishing, Palestine – Naqab), 2021 AD, pp. 118–119.
27. al-Jawharī, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 1245; al-Fayyūmī, Miṣbāḥ al-Munīr fī Gharīb al-Sharḥ al-Kabīr, (Al-Maktabah al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), (n.p.), vol. 1, p. 348; Ibn Fāris, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 113; Ibn Manẓūr, op. cit., vol. 8, p. 209.
28. Abū al-Baqāʾ al-Kafawī, Al-Kuliyyāt: A Lexicon of Terms and Linguistic Nuances, eds. ʿAdnān Darwīsh and Muḥammad al-Miṣrī, (al-Risālah Foundation, Beirut), (n.p.), p. 544.
29. Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Knowledge Foundation (MBRF) and United Nations Development Programme/Regional Bureau for Arab States (UNDP/RBAS), The Future of Knowledge: A Foresight Report 2018, Al Ghurair Printing and Publishing, Dubai – United Arab Emirates, p. 10
30. Muḥammad ʿAlī al-Sharqāwī, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Networks, Artificial Intelligence Center for Computing, (n.d.), 1996, p. 23.
31. al-Muʿtazz bi-Allāh al-Saʿīd et al., Arabic and Artificial Intelligence, King Salman International Complex for Arabic Language (Riyadh), (n.d.), 1445 AH, p. 29.
32. Collins Dictionary Online, s.v. “artificial intelligence,” https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/artificial-intelligence
33. Cambridge Dictionary Online, s.v. “artificial intelligence,” https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/artificial-intelligence
34. Alfonso Renato Vargas-Murillo et al., Transforming Justice: Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Legal Systems, Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, www.richtmann.org, vol. 13, no. 2 (March 2024), p. 437.
35. Muḥammad Nūr al-Dīn Sayyid, Challenges and Issues in the Use of Artificial Intelligence Technologies in Police and Judicial Work, Rooh al-Qawānīn Journal, vol. 01, no. 109, 2025, pp. 353–354. Adapted.
36. Osonde Osoba and William Welser IV, An Intelligence in Our Image: The Risks of Bias and Errors in Artificial Intelligence, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif., © 2017 RAND Corporation, p. 13.
37. Ḥamdī Aḥmad Saʿd Aḥmad, The Legal Nature of Artificial Intelligence, presented at the 4th International Scientific Conference, Faculty of Sharia and Law, Tanta University, “Legal and Jurisprudential Adaptation to Contemporary Developments and Its Impact on Achieving Social Security,” August 11–12, 2012, p. 245.
38. Fāṭimah ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ḥasan Aḥmad Bilāl, The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Promoting Prompt Justice before the Judiciary: A Comparative Study with the Legal and Judicial Systems in the State of Qatar, Master’s thesis, College of Law, Qatar University, 2023, p. 42.
39. Reported by al-Dār Qutnī in his Sunan, Book of the Letter of ʿUmar (r.a.) to Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, hadith no. [4471]. See: al-Dār Qutnī, Sunan al-Dār Qutnī, ed. Shuaib al-Arna’ūṭ et al., al-Risālah Foundation (Beirut), 1st ed., 2004, vol. 5, p. 367; and al-Bayhaqī, Al-Sunan al-Ṣaghīr, Book of Etiquette of the Judge, chapter “The Judge’s Duties Regarding Litigants and Witnesses,” hadith no. [3259]. See: al-Bayhaqī, ed. ʿAbd al-Muʿṭī Amīn Qalʿajī, University of Islamic Studies (Karachi, Pakistan), 1st ed., 1989, vol. 4, p. 133.
40. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, ʿIʿlām al-Muwaqqiʿīn ʿan Rab al-ʿĀlamīn, ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Salām Ibrāhīm, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah (Beirut), 1st ed., 1991, vol. 1, p. 69.
41. al-Qurṭubī, Al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qur’ān, ed. Hishām Samīr al-Bukhārī, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī (Beirut), 1st ed., 2002, vol. 10, p. 72.
42. See: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Nāṣir Āl Saʿdī, Risalāt Laṭīfah Jāmiʿah fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh al-Muhimmah, ed. Āl Mubārak al-Tamīmī; reviewed by Ḥasan Āl Salmān and Sulaym ibn ʿĪd al-Hilālī, Dār Ibn al-Jawzī for Printing, Publishing, and Distribution (Beirut), 1st ed., 1997, p. 54; and al-Jazāʾirī, Maʿālim Uṣūl al-Fiqh ʿinda Ahl al-Sunnah wa-al-Jamāʿah, Dār Ibn al-Jawzī, 5th ed., 1427 AH, p. 297.
43. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-ʿAẓīm, ed. Sāmī ibn Muḥammad Salāmah, Dār Ṭayyibah for Publishing and Distribution, 2nd ed., 1999, vol. 6, p. 541.
44. Jābir Abū Bakr al-Jazāʾirī, Aysar al-Tafsīrāt li-Kalām al-ʿAlī al-Kabīr, Maktabat al-ʿUlūm wa-al-Ḥikam (Medina al-Munawwarah), 5th ed., 2003, vol. 1, p. 401.
45. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter The Swearer, Hadith No. 2771, Vol. 4, p. 244. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Breastfeeding, Chapter Acting upon the Addition of the Swearer, Hadith No. 1459, Vol. 2, p. 1082.
46. Narrated by al-Bayhaqī in his Sunan, The Book of Claims and Evidences, Chapter The Burden of Proof on the Claimant and the Oath on the Defendant, Hadith No. 21201. See: al-Bayhaqī, Al-Sunan al-Kubrā, (Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya – Beirut), 1st ed., 2003, Vol. 10, p. 427.
47. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Testimonies, Chapter Whoever Establishes Proof After the Oath, Hadith No. 2680, Vol. 3, p. 180. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Judgments, Chapter Judging by Apparent Evidence and Erroneous Argument, Hadith No. 1713, Vol. 3, p. 1337.
48. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Testimonies, Chapter Whoever Establishes Proof After the Oath, Hadith No. 2680, Vol. 3, p. 180. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Judgments, Chapter Judging by Apparent Evidence and Erroneous Argument, Hadith No. 1713, Vol. 3, p. 1373.
49. Narrated by Ibn Mājah in his Sunan, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter The Inheritance of the Missing, Hadith No. 2723. See: Ibn Mājah, Sunan Ibn Mājah, ed. Shu‘ayb al-Arna’ūṭ et al., (Dar al-Risāla al-‘Ālamiyya), 1st ed., 2009, Vol. 4, p. 26. And by Abū Dāwūd in his Sunan, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter On the Missing, Hadith No. 2895. See: Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abī Dāwūd, ed. Shu‘ayb al-Arna’ūṭ – Muḥammad Kāmil Qarā Ballālī, (Dar al-Risāla al-‘Ālamiyya), 1st ed., 2009, Vol. 4, p. 523.
50. Ibn Kathīr, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 193.
51. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of the Virtues of the Qur’ān, Chapter Compilation of the Qur’ān, Hadith No. 5729, Vol. 7, p. 130.
52. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of the Virtues of the Qur’ān, Chapter Compilation of the Qur’ān, Hadith No. 4986, Vol. 6, p. 183.
53. al-Qurṭubī, op. cit., Vol. 16, p. 193.
54. Imād Muḥammad Riḍā ‘Alī al-Tamīmī and ‘Abd al-Karīm ‘Uwdah Allāh Muḥammad al-Ghuraysha, “Technical Expertise and Its Impact on Evidence and Judicial Judgment: A
2. Memoir on the Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Mudhakkirah fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh) by al-Shanqīṭī (Medina: Maktabat al-ʿUlūm wa-al-Ḥikam, 5th ed., 2001), p. 10.
3. Al-Ibhāj fī Sharḥ al-Minhāj – Minhāj al-Wuṣūl ilā ʿIlm al-Uṣūl lil-Qāḍī al-Baydāwī by al-Subkī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 1995), vol. 1, p. 43.
4. Tāj al-Lughah wa-Ṣiḥāḥ al-ʿArabīyah by al-Jawharī, source cited above, vol. 6, p. 2463; Lisān al-ʿArab by Ibn Manẓūr, source cited above, vol. 15, p. 186; Majmaʿ Maqāyīs al-Lughah by Ibn Fāris, source cited above, vol. 5, p. 99.
5. Badāʾiʿ al-Ṣanāʾiʿ fī Tartīb al-Sharāʾiʿ by al-Kāsānī (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 2nd ed., 1986), vol. 2, p. 7; Tuḥfat al-Muḥtāj fī Sharḥ al-Minhāj by al-Haytamī (Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijāriyyah al-Kubrā, Masṭafá Muḥammad, 1983), vol. 10, p. 101.
6. Ḥāshiyat al-ʿAdawī ʿalā Sharḥ Kifāyat al-Ṭālib al-Rabbānī by al-ʿAdawī, ed. Yūsuf al-Shaykh Muḥammad al-Biqāʿī (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1994), vol. 2, p. 338.
7. Al-Mubdiʿ fī Sharḥ al-Muqniʿ by Ibn Mufliḥ (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, 1st ed., 1997), vol. 8, p. 139.
8. Istiqlāl al-Qaḍāʾ by Farūq Kilānī (Cairo: Dār al-Nahḍah al-ʿArabīyah, 1st ed., 1977), p. 15.
9. Naẓarīyat al-Ḥukm al-Qaḍāʾī by ʿAbd al-Nāṣir Abū al-Baṣl, p. 52.
10. Naẓarīyat al-Aḥkām al-Qaḍāʾīyah fī Qānūn al-Murāfaʿāt by Aḥmad Abū al-Wafāʾ (Alexandria: Manshaʾ al-Maʿārif, 6th ed., 1988), p. 35.
11. Law No. 08-09 of 18 Ṣafar 1429 AH (25 February 2008), Concerning the Civil and Administrative Procedure Code. Official Gazette, no. 21 (23 April 2008), p. 04.
12. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in Kitāb al-Aḥkām, bāb “Hal yaqḍī al-qāḍī aw yufṭī huwa ghaḍbān”, ḥadīth no. [7158]. See Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, ed. Muḥammad Zuhayr ibn Nāṣir al-Nāṣir (Damascus: Dār Ṭawq al-Najāt [repr. al-Sulṭāniyyah with numbering by Muḥammad Fuʾād ʿAbd al-Bāqī], 1st ed. 1422 AH), vol. 9, p. 65.
13. Reported by Aḥmad in his Musnad, ḥadīth Abī Ḥumayd al-Sāʿidī, no. [23601], vol. 14, p. 39.
14. See Muḥammad Raʾfat ʿUthmān, The Judicial System in Islamic Jurisprudence (Beirut: Dār al-Bayān, 2nd ed., 1994), pp. 529–547; al-Baydāwī, Al-Ghāyah al-Quṣā fī Dirāyat al-Fatwā, ed. and comm. ʿAlī Muḥī al-Dīn al-Qarah Daghi (Beirut: Dār al-Bashāʾir al-Islāmīyah, 1st ed., 2008), p. 463.
15. Abdullah Jamil Abu Wahdān and Amīrah ʿAdnān Darwī, “Judicial Independence in Rulings: An Analytical Jurisprudential Study of Decree-Law No. 2021/8 Concerning the Islamic Judiciary,” Journal of Sharia and Islamic Studies, vol. 13, no. 02, Dhu’l-Ḥijjah 1443 AH (July 2022 AD), p. 259.
16. Abd al-Karīm Zaydān, The Judicial System in Islamic Law, (Al-Bashāʾir Library, Amman), 2nd ed., 1989 AD, pp. 25–32 (selected). Mahmūd al-Sharabīnī, Judiciary in Islām, (Egyptian General Book Organization), 2nd ed., 1999 AD, pp. 18–61 (selected).
17. Khālidah al-Zīn ʿAbd al-Laṭīf and Muṣṭafā ʿUthmān ʿAbdallāh, “The Concept of the Principle of Judge Impartiality in Jurisprudence, Law and Evidentiary Systems,” Journal of the Faculty of Islamic and Arabic Studies for Women, Alexandria, no. 40, issue 03, September 2024 AD, pp. 2298–2299.
18. al-Sanhūrī, Al-Wasīṭ fī Sharḥ al-Qānūn al-Madānī al-Jadīd: Theory of Obligation in General, (n.p.), vol. 2, p. 28 (selected).
19. Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmūʿ al-Fatāwá, ed. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim, (King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur’ān, Madīnah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), 1st ed., 1995 AD, vol. 35, p. 395. – Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, Al-Ṭuruq al-Ḥukmīyah fī al-Siyāsah al-Sharʿīyah, ed. Nāyif ibn Aḥmad al-Ḥamad, supervised by Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh Abū Zayd, (ʿĀlam al-Fawāʾid Press), 1st ed., 1432 AH, vol. 1, pp. 63–64.
20. Muḥammad Naṣr Muḥammad, Proofs of Evidence in Comparative Systems, (Law and Economics Library, Riyadh), 1st ed., 2012 AD, p. 17.
21. The Ḥanafīs, Mālikīs, Shāfiʿīs and Ẓāhirīs adopted the restricted evidentiary system, though they differed as to the scope of admissible means of proof.” See: Ibn Najīm, Al-Ashbāh wa-al-Naẓāʾir ʿalá Madhhab Abī Ḥanīfah al-Nuʿmān, annotated and explicated by Shaykh Zakariyyāʾ ʿAmīrāt, (Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), 1st ed., 1999 AD, p. 210; Ibn Juzayy, Al-Qawānīn al-Fiqhīyah, (Dār al-Fikr, Beirut), 1st ed., 2009 AD, p. 253; al-Qarāfī, Al-Furūq, with marginalia Idrār al-Shurūq ʿalá Anwār al-Furūq by Imam Ibn al-Shāṭib, ed. ʿUmar Ḥasan al-Qiyām, (al-Risālah Foundation, Beirut), 1st ed., 2011 AD, vol. 4, p. 156; al-Sharabīnī, Mughnī al-Muḥtāj ilá Maʿrifat Maʿānī Alfāẓ al-Minhāj, (Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), 1st ed., 1994 AD, vol. 6, p. 399; Ibn Ḥazm, Al-Muḥallá bi-al-Athār, (Dār al-Fikr, Beirut), (n.p.), vol. 11, p. 106.
22. al-Sanhūrī, op. cit., pp. 29/2–30 (selected). Ṣāliḥ ibn Shanāt, “The Role of the Civil Judge in Proof,” doctoral thesis in Law, supervised by al-ʿArabī Shaḥṭ ʿAbd al-Qādir, (Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Oran 2), academic year 2017–2018 AD, pp. 18–19.
23. Abdullah Jamil Abu Wahdān and Amīrah ʿAdnān Darwī, op. cit., p. 261.
24. Official Gazette, dated 15 Jumādá al-Ūlá 1442 AH (30 December 2020 AD), no. 82, p. 36.
25. Ibn Manẓūr, op. cit., vol. 14, p. 287; Ibn Fāris, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 357–358; al-Munāwī, al-Tawqīf ʿalá Muhimmāt al-Taʿārīf, ed. ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Ṣāliḥ Ḥamdān, (ʿĀlam al-Kutub, Cairo), 1st ed., 1990 AD, p. 171.
26. Badīʿ al-Qashāʿilah, Al-Mukhtaṣar fī Mafhūm al-Dhakāʾ, (Psychology Center for Electronic Publishing, Palestine – Naqab), 2021 AD, pp. 118–119.
27. al-Jawharī, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 1245; al-Fayyūmī, Miṣbāḥ al-Munīr fī Gharīb al-Sharḥ al-Kabīr, (Al-Maktabah al-ʿIlmīyah, Beirut), (n.p.), vol. 1, p. 348; Ibn Fāris, op. cit., vol. 3, p. 113; Ibn Manẓūr, op. cit., vol. 8, p. 209.
28. Abū al-Baqāʾ al-Kafawī, Al-Kuliyyāt: A Lexicon of Terms and Linguistic Nuances, eds. ʿAdnān Darwīsh and Muḥammad al-Miṣrī, (al-Risālah Foundation, Beirut), (n.p.), p. 544.
29. Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Knowledge Foundation (MBRF) and United Nations Development Programme/Regional Bureau for Arab States (UNDP/RBAS), The Future of Knowledge: A Foresight Report 2018, Al Ghurair Printing and Publishing, Dubai – United Arab Emirates, p. 10
30. Muḥammad ʿAlī al-Sharqāwī, Artificial Intelligence and Neural Networks, Artificial Intelligence Center for Computing, (n.d.), 1996, p. 23.
31. al-Muʿtazz bi-Allāh al-Saʿīd et al., Arabic and Artificial Intelligence, King Salman International Complex for Arabic Language (Riyadh), (n.d.), 1445 AH, p. 29.
32. Collins Dictionary Online, s.v. “artificial intelligence,” https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/artificial-intelligence
33. Cambridge Dictionary Online, s.v. “artificial intelligence,” https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/artificial-intelligence
34. Alfonso Renato Vargas-Murillo et al., Transforming Justice: Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Legal Systems, Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, www.richtmann.org, vol. 13, no. 2 (March 2024), p. 437.
35. Muḥammad Nūr al-Dīn Sayyid, Challenges and Issues in the Use of Artificial Intelligence Technologies in Police and Judicial Work, Rooh al-Qawānīn Journal, vol. 01, no. 109, 2025, pp. 353–354. Adapted.
36. Osonde Osoba and William Welser IV, An Intelligence in Our Image: The Risks of Bias and Errors in Artificial Intelligence, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif., © 2017 RAND Corporation, p. 13.
37. Ḥamdī Aḥmad Saʿd Aḥmad, The Legal Nature of Artificial Intelligence, presented at the 4th International Scientific Conference, Faculty of Sharia and Law, Tanta University, “Legal and Jurisprudential Adaptation to Contemporary Developments and Its Impact on Achieving Social Security,” August 11–12, 2012, p. 245.
38. Fāṭimah ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ḥasan Aḥmad Bilāl, The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Promoting Prompt Justice before the Judiciary: A Comparative Study with the Legal and Judicial Systems in the State of Qatar, Master’s thesis, College of Law, Qatar University, 2023, p. 42.
39. Reported by al-Dār Qutnī in his Sunan, Book of the Letter of ʿUmar (r.a.) to Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, hadith no. [4471]. See: al-Dār Qutnī, Sunan al-Dār Qutnī, ed. Shuaib al-Arna’ūṭ et al., al-Risālah Foundation (Beirut), 1st ed., 2004, vol. 5, p. 367; and al-Bayhaqī, Al-Sunan al-Ṣaghīr, Book of Etiquette of the Judge, chapter “The Judge’s Duties Regarding Litigants and Witnesses,” hadith no. [3259]. See: al-Bayhaqī, ed. ʿAbd al-Muʿṭī Amīn Qalʿajī, University of Islamic Studies (Karachi, Pakistan), 1st ed., 1989, vol. 4, p. 133.
40. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, ʿIʿlām al-Muwaqqiʿīn ʿan Rab al-ʿĀlamīn, ed. Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Salām Ibrāhīm, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah (Beirut), 1st ed., 1991, vol. 1, p. 69.
41. al-Qurṭubī, Al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qur’ān, ed. Hishām Samīr al-Bukhārī, Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī (Beirut), 1st ed., 2002, vol. 10, p. 72.
42. See: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Nāṣir Āl Saʿdī, Risalāt Laṭīfah Jāmiʿah fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh al-Muhimmah, ed. Āl Mubārak al-Tamīmī; reviewed by Ḥasan Āl Salmān and Sulaym ibn ʿĪd al-Hilālī, Dār Ibn al-Jawzī for Printing, Publishing, and Distribution (Beirut), 1st ed., 1997, p. 54; and al-Jazāʾirī, Maʿālim Uṣūl al-Fiqh ʿinda Ahl al-Sunnah wa-al-Jamāʿah, Dār Ibn al-Jawzī, 5th ed., 1427 AH, p. 297.
43. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-ʿAẓīm, ed. Sāmī ibn Muḥammad Salāmah, Dār Ṭayyibah for Publishing and Distribution, 2nd ed., 1999, vol. 6, p. 541.
44. Jābir Abū Bakr al-Jazāʾirī, Aysar al-Tafsīrāt li-Kalām al-ʿAlī al-Kabīr, Maktabat al-ʿUlūm wa-al-Ḥikam (Medina al-Munawwarah), 5th ed., 2003, vol. 1, p. 401.
45. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter The Swearer, Hadith No. 2771, Vol. 4, p. 244. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Breastfeeding, Chapter Acting upon the Addition of the Swearer, Hadith No. 1459, Vol. 2, p. 1082.
46. Narrated by al-Bayhaqī in his Sunan, The Book of Claims and Evidences, Chapter The Burden of Proof on the Claimant and the Oath on the Defendant, Hadith No. 21201. See: al-Bayhaqī, Al-Sunan al-Kubrā, (Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya – Beirut), 1st ed., 2003, Vol. 10, p. 427.
47. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Testimonies, Chapter Whoever Establishes Proof After the Oath, Hadith No. 2680, Vol. 3, p. 180. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Judgments, Chapter Judging by Apparent Evidence and Erroneous Argument, Hadith No. 1713, Vol. 3, p. 1337.
48. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Testimonies, Chapter Whoever Establishes Proof After the Oath, Hadith No. 2680, Vol. 3, p. 180. And narrated by Muslim in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of Judgments, Chapter Judging by Apparent Evidence and Erroneous Argument, Hadith No. 1713, Vol. 3, p. 1373.
49. Narrated by Ibn Mājah in his Sunan, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter The Inheritance of the Missing, Hadith No. 2723. See: Ibn Mājah, Sunan Ibn Mājah, ed. Shu‘ayb al-Arna’ūṭ et al., (Dar al-Risāla al-‘Ālamiyya), 1st ed., 2009, Vol. 4, p. 26. And by Abū Dāwūd in his Sunan, The Book of Inheritance, Chapter On the Missing, Hadith No. 2895. See: Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abī Dāwūd, ed. Shu‘ayb al-Arna’ūṭ – Muḥammad Kāmil Qarā Ballālī, (Dar al-Risāla al-‘Ālamiyya), 1st ed., 2009, Vol. 4, p. 523.
50. Ibn Kathīr, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 193.
51. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of the Virtues of the Qur’ān, Chapter Compilation of the Qur’ān, Hadith No. 5729, Vol. 7, p. 130.
52. Narrated by al-Bukhārī in his Ṣaḥīḥ, The Book of the Virtues of the Qur’ān, Chapter Compilation of the Qur’ān, Hadith No. 4986, Vol. 6, p. 183.
53. al-Qurṭubī, op. cit., Vol. 16, p. 193.
54. Imād Muḥammad Riḍā ‘Alī al-Tamīmī and ‘Abd al-Karīm ‘Uwdah Allāh Muḥammad al-Ghuraysha, “Technical Expertise and Its Impact on Evidence and Judicial Judgment: A
Published
2026-06-10
How to Cite
Benchikh , Y. (2026). Judicial Decisions in the Context of Artificial Intelligence Technologies – A Jurisprudential and Legal Study . Journal of Science and Knowledge Horizons, 6(2), 169-192. https://doi.org/10.34118/jskp.v6i2.4626
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
